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Old 21-10-2009, 07:28 PM
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Default Planting Bamboo to avoid Global Warming (2)

Prevention and Control of Pollution by Bamboo
Bamboo is a carbon sequestration. Bamboo plays an important role in preventing and controlling pollution. As an important part of the groves, bamboos absorb CO2 and releases O2 by photosynthesis. Simultaneously they may obstruct and collect dust, clear the air and relieve greenhouse effect. It plays an increasingly more important role in the purification air and improving environment. The surface of bamboo leaves is generally rough and its ability for dust adsorption ranges from 4 to 8 g/m2. On the one hand, as bamboo has profuse foliages, it may block the airflow and slow down the wind speed. So the dust lost its momentum in the atmosphere and falls. The fugitive dust will reduce 50% after through the bamboo grove. On the other, the bamboo has a strong evaporation surface, which transpires massive quantities of moisture during fine days, creating a high humidity area around the bamboo canopy and grove surface. The dust become wetter and increase its weight, and moist leaves increased their absorptive capacity, so dust is more easy to descend and to be absorbed. After the dust on the leaves is washed out by rain, they are able to absorb again. At the basis of 1 hectare of bamboos absorb 1,005 kg/d of CO2 , absorb 63 kg/d of SO2, absorb 2,466 kg/d of dust, then 10,000 hectare of bamboos will absorb 3,898,000 t/a of waste gas, absorb 9,000,000 t/a of dust. Otherwise, bamboo may greatly weaken the noise by diffuse reflection, absorption and hindrance to the sound wave. According to the cited reference, a 40 m width of bamboo grove belt may reduce noise from 10 to 15 dB.

The Function of Biodiversity Protection of Bamboo
The environment of bamboo grove is the life place for many animals, plants and microorganism. The bamboo grove provides a good habitat, shelter and food resources to the animals. The distribution multiplicity of the bamboo species results in many kind of ecosystems which provide a rich habitat for many other plants. Bamboo offers some advantages in maintaining plants' biodiversity. Many other plants coexist in different type of bamboo groves and in different areas are comparatively stable, but each combination is unique. Especially in the natural bamboo groves, there are mores species associated to it which are representative. Meanwhile, the environment of bamboo grove is a place where is warm in winter and cool in summer, the soil moist and fertile, so it suits some unique fungus to grow, which are edible or suitable for medicinal or health care purposes.

Bamboo for Exhausted Landfill Site
So far, landfill is still a main mode of garbage treatment in most of developing countries. However, although the measures of anti-seepage, compacting, covering and collection to be taken for environment protection, but because of the differential elevation of landfill is high and biogas production is too much, so it potentially threat to the safe operation of landfill site.
In Turkey and Philippines, there were large landslides which caused the explosion and buried an entire village. In Chongqing Liangfengya, China, a landfill landslide caused significant casualties and property damage in 2002.
But in recent years, the Chongqing Tianziling Landfill Company took an active initiative by trying to recover the vegetation on the landfill site. They planted bamboo with over 95% of survival rate on the closed site. So that both may controlling soil erosion, protecting ecological environment. and enhanced the stability on the landfill pile. Meantime also have certain economic benefit. Covering with 0.8 m to 1 m thick of cohesive soil on the closed landfill site, and planting bamboos, will prevent the soil to be washed away. Besides, rhizome and root system just like a geotechnical net on the slope surface, prevent a slide cambered surface from forming. The bamboo with its strong root system tightly holds the loose landfill pile, so that enhance the stability of pile.

New Discovery on Bamboo
Buried under the giant stand of bamboo in northern New South Wales, two Australian soil scientists have made a discovery they believe will help save the planet.
From Southern University, Leigh Sullivan explain the signification on this new discovery. He said, “This is a really old grove of bamboo here. It's been there at least 50 years according to the aerial photographs. So, it's been there a long time shedding leaves onto the ground and when you actually look at the accumulation of the organic matter, what we can see is a really thick spongy layer, full of organic matter in various states of decay. Amongst the decay thousands of tiny capsules of carbon known as plant stones (a particle with silica structure ), invisible to the naked eye and virtually indestructible.
“Plantstone is just like a glass jar that has the carbon inside it and that gets deposited into the soil when the plant dies and, basically, it's very stable,.” another man come from the same University, Jeffrey Parr said, “the carbon is actually enclosed by a silica coating. The silica coating protects it from being decomposed in soils.”
“What we've found is that all this organic matter is accumulated within seven years, which means that the organic carbon's been accumulating at a gold medal rate - one tonne, per hectare, per year.” Jeffrey Parr said.
He further said that the plantstone from the sugar cane richer, and more carbon stored in
Until now, forests have grabbed the most attention as carbon capturers, but hardly any tree types make plantstones and they give off carbon when they're cut down. By contrast, plantstones made by crops and grasses are secured for thousands of years, and if the crop's harvested, then regrown, more new plantstones are created, and they're easy to measure
Sullivan said, you can grow a forest pretty quickly and you can lock up large amounts of carbon pretty quickly. The problem is that that carbon is quite volatile. If you have a fire, a disease, or you want to change the forest back to a paddock, you lose the stored carbon. With plantstone carbon we can actually get the carbon in the crop and estimate it quite easily before it hits the soil.
“This is a bit of a stretch, but if all the arable land on the globe was growing vegetation that had the same plant stone carbon sequestration rates as our best sugar cane, that would actually sequester nearly three billion tonnes of CO2 annually in the globe, which is about 20 per cent of our current rate of atmospheric CO2 increase.”

The Bamboo business is a sustainable business. The whole bamboo can be used. Bamboo shoots are edible. Bamboo poles can be used to manufacture flooring and fiber board, bamboo branches and leaves can be used in paper making, bamboo charcoal is a good adsorbent for sewage treatment.
Nowadays in China, the bamboo industry has been transformed into a whole production chain industry. There are 10 factories which yearly produce a sales turnover over hundred million Yuan (US$13,000,000), 30 factories which sales turnover is over US$7,000,000 , 300 factories over US$1,300,000. The national year production of bamboo reaches 1,152,000,000 poles. The bamboo shoots output amounts to 4,200,000 tons. The bamboo floor output reaches 6,000,000 square meters, the bamboo plywood output amounts to 1,673,200 cubic meters approximately. Bamboo industry may offer many jobs to people too. For instance, in Aozai town (a small town in Guangdong province) the bamboo industry creates 35,000 jobs every year.
We will guide the operator of the bamboo grove to develop the bamboo industry with the income earned from bamboo plantation. We will instruct them to establish the bamboo shoots processing factory, the bamboo floorboard factory, the bamboo plywood plant, the bamboo charcoal factory and the bamboo pulp mill. We will provide all personnel training, offer business plans and economic analysis report. Help the operators push the bamboo products to local market or even to all over the world.
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Old 21-10-2009, 08:30 PM
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The Bamboo business is a sustainable business...
Ph. aurea was introduced to the Azores where it has become an invasive weed and taken over whole hillsides to the detriment of other vegetation. I don't think it is welcome.

In Ethiopia, following massive deforestation, and a chronic shortage of wood for fuel, fast-growing Eucalytus was thought an ideal solution - once. Now it increasingly looks like a serious pest, as it sucks water out of the soil very hard and impedes the restoratoin of the natural vegetation.

You can go to Chile and NZ, and see massive areas of monoculture forestry of introduced species, and little but introduced species in most other areas too. The result is that the native species, both animal and plant, are squeezed out because of habitat loss.

Sure places like Madagascar need a lot of land remediation, as much of the land has been deforested and then become useless even for agriculture after soil damage. But I think you have to be very careful in recommending such things as universal solutions. You need to be sure the plant will not be invasive nor impede the regeneration of the natural vegetation.
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Old 22-10-2009, 08:34 AM
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Bamboo: a fascinating plant.
Excerpt from the Thesis published in Venice in July 1997 under the title The Bionics of Bamboo. Author dr. arch. Giovanna Barbaro .
English translation and adaptation by Mario Rosato, Barcelona January 2009.

Introduction

This research and experimentation thesis, published more than a decade ago in Italy, has been motivated by a curious question: Why has Nature perfected over the course of evolution plants like bamboo, with a stem neither completely hollow nor completely solid?

One possible answer among many, because Nature is so complex that needs to be studied deeply with dedication and especially by multidisciplinary teams, can be articulated into three sections.

The first is the result of a systematic research on bamboos from the botanical point of view and with regard to their physical and mechanical properties, the second is a historical overview of the technologies in processing raw materials, on the wide use of these plants in their Countries of origin in various sectors like building and home accessories ; and last a valuation made in the Laboratory for Testing of Materials of the University of Architecture of Venice on the contribution of the nodes to the overall resistance of a bamboo pole subject to critical load and bending.

The Author has updated some excerpts to share with the Readers the most fascinating aspects of this plant, which in Europe is still undervalued, despite its excellent potential for the sustainable development of our model of society.

Botanical features and origin.

Bamboo is the common name, of Indian origin, applied to all tree-like plants with woody trunk and shape of cane. The Genus of the family Monocotyledons include grasses, which in turn includes the subfamily of bamboos. From the systematic viewpoint of the grass tribe (subfamily) Bambusae is subdivided into five subtribes: Dendrocalaminae, Melocanninae, Bambusinae, Arundinaceae and Puellinae.
Botanical literature gives very different information on the number of families and species of bamboo. Lübke, 1967, points out about 500, the American Bamboo Society some 470 of which 400 grown in USA. Summing up, we can highlight two major groups based on the type of rootstock and the growth characteristics of the reeds: the monopodial bamboos (picture below by Shinji Takama, Die Wunderbare Welt des Bambus, Ed Dumont)



and the sympodial bamboos (picture below of Noah Bell, 2007,
www.shweeashbamboo.com).


In the first ones, rhizomes form long and thin extensions of the reeds which grow at regular intervals. The latter have short and thick bulbous roots, which ends produce the canes.

In the Old World bamboos grow from 32 ° S (South Africa) to 46 ° N (Kuril Islands). In the New World, they are found from 47 ° S (Patagonia, Argentina) to 40 ° N (Philadelphia, USA). 65% of known species are found in India, Burma and Indonesia. In Europe, the bamboo was introduced in 1855 in France, with a plantation of 6 hectares in the locality of Générargues.

The astonishing biology of bamboo and its dissemination.

Bamboo grows best in tropical or subtropical climates, however there are species that tolerate up to -25 ° C as Chusquea aristata, which grows in Ecuador up to the line of perennial snow of the Andes.

Monopodial species spread horizontally from 1 to 6 m / year, for about 10 years, whereas sympodial species spread horizontally over short distances, according to a radial pattern in which each bulb generates another 2 or 3. Different root systems can intersect, forming networks of progressive scale ranging from 25,000 to 187,000 km / ha and thus effectively contrasting soil erosion, particularly in areas most prone to crumble and break, and along embankments and river banks. Monopodial.

The buds develop from the rhizome and can remain underground for several years. Just emerging, they grow with great speed: within 20 - 30 days the cane reaches its maximum height, and from then it strengthens. Depending on the species, the cane can not grow more than 30 cm in height with a maximum diameter of 2.5 cm or in certain conditions reach 40 m in height with diameters of 5 to 12 cm and thickness of the wall of the trunk 1 cm. Except for grass, no other plant grows as fast as bamboo, with a record of 121 cm / day measured in 1956 by Nagaoka in Kyoto in a specimen of Phyllostachys edulis.

Normal growth is 25 cm / day and every shoot that sprouts contains in miniature all the nodes that the mature cane will have.

The high growth rate of bamboo results in a high productivity of biomass that, under ideal conditions, can exceed 50 tons / ha / year.

Because it is harvested 5 years after having been planted and regenerates without having to replant it, the bamboo contributes to sustainable forest management.

One of the most mysterious aspects of bamboo is its flowering.
Some species die after having fruited, while others can bloom several times annually. Small species bloom at intervals of 3 or 4 years, while giant species do after a period of 20 to 120 years. Flowering can be sporadic or mass, i.e., only a few rods around the root ball or individual, or even all bamboos in one nation. In 1880 some rhizomes of Chusquea abetifolia from the West Indies were planted in a greenhouse in England. In 1884 the canes bloomed in the greenhouse at the same time as their sisters in the area of origin. It seems that there is a correlation between the flowering of bamboo and the activity of sunspots.

The flowers give rise to fruits, which generally fall to the ground before ripening. The seeds have a low fertility rate: during an experiment conducted in 1966 by Mc Clure, only 1% of seeds planted germinated. Normally the plant dies along with its rhizomes some weeks after having produced the fruits.

If the biological aspects of bamboo are amazing, its mechanical properties are a source of inspiration for biomimetics experts. Observing for example the distribution of the vascular vessels in the wall of the cane, it is evident that the fibers of higher strength are more densely grouped at the periphery, where static efforts are higher, in a similar way to the armor bars of reinforced concrete buildings.

According to Stockel, the resistance to traction of the fibers that run parallel to the axis of the reed reaches 4000 kg/cm2. To understand the magnitude of this figure, remember that timber does not exceed 500 kg/cm2, construction steel Fe B38K resists until 3750 kg/cm2 and fiberglass reach 7000 kg/cm2.

The bark of the bamboo has a high silicon content, which gives interesting properties of fire resistance.
The first tests on fire resistance back to the 80s of last century and were made by the Institut für leichte Flächentragwerke, University of Stuttgart – Germany, where bamboo is certified as a flame retardant combustible material. In Spain bamboo meets the standards of the new CTE (Technical Building Code) and the tests of fire resistance according to the Norm UNE EN 13501 classify this material as category CFL-S1 , hence suitable even for public buildings.

The versatility of bamboo is a solution for sustainable development. Nowadays it is often spoken about the problems derived from the unsustainable management of the environment, such as the rising temperatures and sea levels, with the consequent unbalances in different ecosystems. Life in metropolitan areas is becoming harder by lack of air quality, while environmental technicians prospect threatening short-term scenarios because of water shortage and biodiversity reduction. Albert Einstein said "If the bees begin to disappear, mankind would be left a few years of life."

In the immediate future, major interventions, both of professionals and of any human being, should be addressed to protect the biodiversity of both plants and animals. If we want to deliver our planet livable to future generations, we must control the growth of non-renewable energy consumption by avoiding unnecessary waste and inefficient systems.

The uncontrolled exploitation of timber is directly involved in climate change and is reflected in a devastating hydrogeological instability of the soil and the increase of carbon dioxide with serious consequences of global warming. Personally, as an architect and naturalist, I believe each of us should contribute with his/her own knowledge and ethics to revert or at least stop this trend, beginning by changing our attitudes and lifestyle.

Bamboo is the only alternative to wood because its 100% sustainable farming helps to protect biodiversity and its industrialization process is organic.

If compared to the pine, a hectare of bamboo can provide 2 to 5 times more raw material for the production of paper, fiber boards, tables, charcoal and even wood with a density higher than 1000 kg/m3 therefore very resistant to heel marks. Bamboo’s dense network of roots is an excellent stabilizer of slopes against erosion, and their fronds create an ideal habitat for microfauna. Its rapid growth makes bamboo ideal as a biofilter for phytodepuration of polluted waters and the capture of large quantities of atmospheric CO2. Bamboo’s elegant forms and their ease of cultivation in a wide variety of climates and soils make it a beautifier element in any garden, even during the gray winters.
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Old 23-10-2009, 09:04 AM
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Ph. aurea was introduced to the Azores where it has become an invasive weed and taken over whole hillsides to the detriment of other vegetation. I don't think it is welcome.

In Ethiopia, following massive deforestation, and a chronic shortage of wood for fuel, fast-growing Eucalytus was thought an ideal solution - once. Now it increasingly looks like a serious pest, as it sucks water out of the soil very hard and impedes the restoratoin of the natural vegetation.

You can go to Chile and NZ, and see massive areas of monoculture forestry of introduced species, and little but introduced species in most other areas too. The result is that the native species, both animal and plant, are squeezed out because of habitat loss.

Sure places like Madagascar need a lot of land remediation, as much of the land has been deforested and then become useless even for agriculture after soil damage. But I think you have to be very careful in recommending such things as universal solutions. You need to be sure the plant will not be invasive nor impede the regeneration of the natural vegetation.
Ues, you are right. We are sure the plant will not be invasive nor impede the regeneration of the natural vegetation if we manage it, not just plant it.
The goal is instead wood with bamboo.
Every part of bamboo is useful.
Bamboo Shoot: Vegetable, food therapy: edema, ascites, dermatophytosis,
nephritis edema, asthma, diabetes mellitus, weight reducing,
blood pressure, good for longevity
Bamboo Panel: Railway adjust-gasket, container board, furniture board,
ceiling, construction mold board, truck platform, home floor,
ship board, door board,
Bamboo Pulp: Paper making: Trace paper, cowhide paper, typing paper, copy
paper, cable paper, package paper, hectograph paper,
newspaper, letterpress paper
Bamboo Charcoal: soil amendment, activated carbon adsorbent, feed additive,
filler to degradable plastics, water treatment agent,
Electromagnetic shielding material, deleterious gas adsorbent
Bamboo cellulose Triacetate: Sensitive film base, synthetic silk, Reverse
osmosis membrane
Bamboo xylose and Xylitol: Raw material for chemical industry
Bamboo fiber: knit fabric, textile
Bamboo Vinegar: Critter faeces deodorant, soil amendment, Organic Farming
Biological pesticide, hairdressing, shower gel
Bamboo fuel: Bioethanol
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Old 26-10-2009, 04:30 AM
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Ph. aurea was introduced to the Azores where it has become an invasive weed and taken over whole hillsides to the detriment of other vegetation. I don't think it is welcome.

In Ethiopia, following massive deforestation, and a chronic shortage of wood for fuel, fast-growing Eucalytus was thought an ideal solution - once. Now it increasingly looks like a serious pest, as it sucks water out of the soil very hard and impedes the restoratoin of the natural vegetation.

You can go to Chile and NZ, and see massive areas of monoculture forestry of introduced species, and little but introduced species in most other areas too. The result is that the native species, both animal and plant, are squeezed out because of habitat loss.

Sure places like Madagascar need a lot of land remediation, as much of the land has been deforested and then become useless even for agriculture after soil damage. But I think you have to be very careful in recommending such things as universal solutions. You need to be sure the plant will not be invasive nor impede the regeneration of the natural vegetation.
plant bamboo to soils remediation is good idea. Because bamboo is a grass plant, but it growth even faster than grass. harvest bamboo shoot and poles will remove much nitrates from the soil. But please note, all shoots and poles from the cutting must be removed out of the forest.

Nitrate Reductase(NR)is the key enzyme in Nitrate Metabolism. Rise its activities will help degradation of nitrite.

Nitrate is main nitrogen sources for most plants. Nitrate convert to Ammonia by nitrate reduction, and then combine to protein with carbohydrate, forms protoplasm of plant cell and the other nitrogen components. Nitrate Reductase activity high, its net photosynthesis rate is high also. Moso bamboo can cumulate big quantity of biomass, is due to its nitrate reductase activity is high.


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Old 26-10-2009, 04:40 AM
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Originally Posted by echinosum View Post
Ph. aurea was introduced to the Azores where it has become an invasive weed and taken over whole hillsides to the detriment of other vegetation. I don't think it is welcome.

In Ethiopia, following massive deforestation, and a chronic shortage of wood for fuel, fast-growing Eucalytus was thought an ideal solution - once. Now it increasingly looks like a serious pest, as it sucks water out of the soil very hard and impedes the restoratoin of the natural vegetation.

You can go to Chile and NZ, and see massive areas of monoculture forestry of introduced species, and little but introduced species in most other areas too. The result is that the native species, both animal and plant, are squeezed out because of habitat loss.

Sure places like Madagascar need a lot of land remediation, as much of the land has been deforested and then become useless even for agriculture after soil damage. But I think you have to be very careful in recommending such things as universal solutions. You need to be sure the plant will not be invasive nor impede the regeneration of the natural vegetation.
Nitrate Reductase(NR)

There are two ways to soil from nitrates to acidification: one is carbon cycle leads to soil acidification, that is anion (base) in bamboo to be removed by bamboo biomass to be removed from the forest. The other is nitrogen cycle leads to soil acidification. Nitrate Reductase(NR)is the key enzyme in Nitrate Metabolism. Its catalytic reaction is as below: NO3 + NADH+H+ to NO2 +NAD+H2O. Rise its activities will help degradation of nitrite. Nitrate is main nitrogen sources for most plants. Nitrate convert to Ammonia by nitrate reduction, and then combine to protein with carbohydrate, forms protoplasm of plant cell and the other nitrogen components. Nitrate Reductase activity high, its net photosynthesis rate is high also. Moso bamboo can cumulate big quantity of biomass, is due to its nitrate reductase activity is high. Because of bamboo materials and bamboo shoots are removed out of forest every year, , the consumption of system nutrient more than complementary, so the content of N total in soil to be reduced evidently.
The testing of results of NR activity in leaves of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) is 139.71 ug/g/h. (Leaves Physilogical and Biochemical Characters of Phyllostachys edulis. ,Hu Fangming, Du Tianzhen, Yang Guangyao, Chen Hongwe, Zhu Junyin. Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China and Central south Forest University.Changsha, Hunan, China)
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Old 26-10-2009, 04:42 AM
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Ph. aurea was introduced to the Azores where it has become an invasive weed and taken over whole hillsides to the detriment of other vegetation. I don't think it is welcome.

In Ethiopia, following massive deforestation, and a chronic shortage of wood for fuel, fast-growing Eucalytus was thought an ideal solution - once. Now it increasingly looks like a serious pest, as it sucks water out of the soil very hard and impedes the restoratoin of the natural vegetation.

You can go to Chile and NZ, and see massive areas of monoculture forestry of introduced species, and little but introduced species in most other areas too. The result is that the native species, both animal and plant, are squeezed out because of habitat loss.

Sure places like Madagascar need a lot of land remediation, as much of the land has been deforested and then become useless even for agriculture after soil damage. But I think you have to be very careful in recommending such things as universal solutions. You need to be sure the plant will not be invasive nor impede the regeneration of the natural vegetation.
Pytolith (Plant opal, or Silica bady )

Buried under the giant stand of bamboo in northern New South Wales, two Australian soil scientists have made a discovery they believe will help save the planet.
From Southern University, Leigh Sullivan explain the signification on this new discovery. He said, “This is a really old grove of bamboo here. It's been there at least 50 years according to the aerial photographs. So, it's been there a long time shedding leaves onto the ground and when you actually look at the accumulation of the organic matter, what we can see is a really thick spongy layer, full of organic matter in various states of decay. Amongst the decay thousands of tiny capsules of carbon known as plant stones (a particle with silica structure ), invisible to the naked eye and virtually indestructible.
“Plantstone is just like a glass jar that has the carbon inside it and that gets deposited into the soil when the plant dies and, basically, it's very stable,.” another man come from the same University, Jeffrey Parr said, “the carbon is actually enclosed by a silica coating. The silica coating protects it from being decomposed in soils.”
“What we've found is that all this organic matter is accumulated within seven years, which means that the organic carbon's been accumulating at a gold medal rate - one tonne, per hectare, per year.” Jeffrey Parr said.
He further said that the plantstone from the sugar cane richer, and more carbon stored in
Until now, forests have grabbed the most attention as carbon capturers, but hardly any tree types make plantstones and they give off carbon when they're cut down. By contrast, plantstones made by crops and grasses are secured for thousands of years, and if the crop's harvested, then regrown, more new plantstones are created, and they're easy to measure
Sullivan said, you can grow a forest pretty quickly and you can lock up large amounts of carbon pretty quickly. The problem is that that carbon is quite volatile. If you have a fire, a disease, or you want to change the forest back to a paddock, you lose the stored carbon. With plantstone carbon we can actually get the carbon in the crop and estimate it quite easily before it hits the soil.
“This is a bit of a stretch, but if all the arable land on the globe was growing vegetation that had the same plant stone carbon sequestration rates as our best sugar cane, that would actually sequester nearly three billion tonnes of CO2 annually in the globe, which is about 20 per cent of our current rate of atmospheric CO2 increase.”
In fact, early in 1804, phytolith was found in plants. Ehreberg(1866) discover phytolith is different to natural silicate mineral. It is only special in some plants. In the leaves, sheath, inflorescence, shell, there are many minerals, actually it is amorphous silicate body. Most of phytoliths are content more carbon. The size of phytolith are different with different plants. Most are about 1 microns. But bamboos’ size is as below: length = 18.8 um (+-0.8um), width=11.7um(+-0.4um), height=11.8um (+-0.3um).





Sorce: MORPHOLOGY OF PHYTOLITH INBAMBUSOIDEAE(GRAMINEAE)
AND ITS ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE. L i Quan, Xu Deke, LuHouyuan. Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing. Graduate University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing
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