This was originally posted to:
uk.rec.gardening england.rec.gardening

-----BEGIN PGP SIGNED MESSAGE-----
Hash: SHA1

This information pack is my response to the warm reception my
requests for information on how to kill moles were recieved from
99.99% of regular subscribers to this group. It is, however, in draft
form. Your information and comments regarding the content and layout
of this information pack will be most welcome. Feel free to make a
contribution.

I have divided this draft information pack into three parts.

Part One will give a comprehensive description of the European mole,
talpa europa with reference to other """members of the same group"""
where this is necessary for comparative identification.

Part Two will deal with methods of eradicating moles from the area of
land in question.

Part Three will give referrences to articles, journals, books and web
pages.

This posting is for you to read, mark, inwardly digest and respond
to.

Thankyou,

Clinton.

============= Draft Information Pack ================
There are 11 species of mole (Abe 1985; Corbet 1978; Ellerman and
Morrison-Scott 1966; Filippucci et al. 1987; Lekagul and McNeely
1977):

T. europaea, Europe except Ireland and parts of Mediterranean region,
east through the Soviet Union as far as the rivers Ob and Irtysh;
T. romana, Italy;
T. stankovici, southern Yugoslavia, Greece;
T. caucasica, northern side of Caucasus from Sea of Azov to Caspian
Sea;
T. caeca, southern Europe, Asia Minor, Caucasus;
T. occidentalis, southern Spain;
T. streeti, Kurdistan in northwestern Iran;
T. altaica, central Siberia, northern Mongolia;
T. mizura, Honshu (Japan);
T. micrura, Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, southern China, Burma, Thailand,
Indochina, Malay Peninsula;
T. longirostris, southern China.

NAMES
======
Talpa europaea - European mole .

T. europaea, is found in Europe except Ireland and parts of
Mediterranean region, east through the Soviet Union as far as the
rivers Ob and Irtysh;

Alternative Names (Synonyms)
========================
Mole
Common Mole
Moldwarp
Want
Taupe
Famh (Scottish Gaelic)
Gwadd (Welsh)
Twrch daear (Welsh)
Taupe d'Europe (French)
Taupe commune
Maulwurf (German)
Europäischer Maulwurf
=========================

General Appearance
=================
Elongated cylindrical body with very short thick velvety black fur,
no obvious neck but head tapering to pink fleshy snout. Short tail,
spade-like forelimbs

Appearance / Morphology
====================

Measurement & Weight
===================
Length Head-body length: 4.4-6.8 in. / 11-17cm
Males 121-159mm (mean 143mm)
Females 113-144mm (mean 135mm)
Adult weight General 2-4 oz. / 60-120g
Male 87-128g (mean 110g)
Female 72-106g (mean 85g)
New-born weight 3.5g; 0.11-0.14 oz. / 3-4g
Growth rate 40g by 22 days. Similar to adults by three months

Head
====
Head tapers into body, no obvious neck
Skull: About 35mm long. Long and narrow and tapering from middle of
braincase to just behind canines.
Nose: Nose pad pink, fleshy
Ears: no pinna (external ear)
Dentition (Teeth) I3/3 C1/1 P4/4 M 3/3.
Upper canines enlarged.
A Mole has 44 teeth, more than any other mammal in Britain.
Eyes Eyes very small; concealed in coat

Legs and Tracks
=============
Limbs very short.
Hindlimbs slender, basically hairless.
Forelimbs shovel-like, adapted for digging: feet broader than long,
flat, with five large strong straight claws and surface area increasd
by radial sesamoid bone.
Sensory fringe hairs on forelimbs.

Tail
===
Short, constricted base, usually carried erect, hairs coars and
sparse
Length: 0.8-1.4 in. / 2-3.4cm
Males 26-40mm (mean 33mm)
Females 25-38mm (mean 32mm)

Coat / Pelage
===========
Adult Female Very short (6mm summer, 9mm winter), dense, velvety.
Usually velvety black, ventral paler.
May have silvery luster.
No fur on snout or limbs.
Mid-ventral area normally stained yellow-brown, particularly in
breeding season, from skin gland secretions.
Sensory fringe hairs on forelimbs and tail.
Vibrissae on snout associated with Eimer's organs - sensory receptors
Variations (If present) Albino, cream, golden, apricot, rust,
cinnamon, piebald (irregular buff or white blotches), whitish and
grey coat colours reported
Moult Twice yearly . Four times yearly .
Spring moult starts posterior abdomen, spreads over flanks and sides
to back Autumn moult reverses this progression


Neonate (New-born) Characteristics
============================
Naked at birth . Naked and blind



Anatomy Notes
============

Reproductive Anatomy.
==================
4 pairs of nipples. Testes in sacs near tail base, outside abdomen
but no external swelling visible. Two uterine horns opening at
right-angles into long s-shaped uterovaginal canal .
Scent glands: Paired preputial glands, in both males and females,
larger in males. Largest in breeding season

Sexual Dimorphism.
================
Minimal. Males generally larger than females. External genitalia very
similar. Males prepuce length 6mm, perineum 5mm long; females
prepuce length 6mm, perineum 4mm long
Skin: Thicker on chest

Life Stages / Natural Diet / Physiology
=============================

Reproductive Stages
=================
Breeding Season Spring - March to May.
First pregnancies recorded March in England, May-June in
north-eastern Scotland.
Oestrus / Ovulation Oestrus probably less than 24 hrs
Gestation / Pregnancy About 4 weeks (28 days) 34-36 days
Parturition / Birth --
Neonatal development Birth: naked, blind.
14 days: fur started.
22 days: eyes open.
33 days: start to leave nest
4-5 weeks: weaned.
5-6 weeks: disperse.
Litter size 2-7, usually 3-4
Time between Litters / Litters per year One, rarely two (particularly
in south of Engleand and Europe)
Lactation / Milk Production 4-5 weeks; 2 months

Sexual Maturity.
============
Spring following birth ; six months old ; 10-12 months

Longevity.
========
Up to 6 years, but most not more than three years and mainly less
than one year. Highest mortality during post-weaning dispersal.

Natural Diet
==========
Mainly invertebrates.
Main prey earthworms, particularly Lumbricus terrestris.
Also insect larvae, less myriapods and molluscs.
(snakes, lizards, mice, small birds)
80g mole needs about 50g earthworms/day (about 185 kJ/day).
Moles almost exclusively feed on food that enters their
tunnel system, which acts as a pitfall trap.

Behaviour
========

Feeding Behaviour
===============

Mainly soil invertebrates falling into tunnels,
Also items obtained while digging.
Occasionally seen scavenging on surface.
Commonly store food, particularly in spring and autumn.
Often die if deprived of food for 10-12 hours
A mole will only eat enough worms to satisfy its appetite. Any
leftover worms are prevented from escaping by biting off their heads.
They are then stored in a special part of the tunnel, known as the
'moles larder'. 470 worms have been recorded in one chamber.

Parental Behaviour
===============
Female returns to nest 5-6 times daily.
Post-weaning dispersal above ground at 5-6 weeks.

Social Behaviour / Territoriality
========================
Intra-specific Solitary and aggressive to intruders.
Territories largely exclusive outside breeding season.
Home range of males twice that of females outside breeding season.
Males tunnel extensive areas in breeding season.
Chase through tunnels, fight with forelimbs and teeth until
subordinate individual withdraws (both sexes).
Temporal separation where adjacent territories overlap minimises
agonistic encounters.

Males and females are solitary for most of the year, occupying
exclusive territories. With the start of the breeding season males
enlarge their territories, tunnelling over large areas in search of
females.

Sexual Behaviour
==============
Promiscuous

Predation in Wild
=============
Birds of prey: tawny owls, buzzards;
Carnivorous mammals: stoats, weasels, foxes, domestic cats, dogs.

Activity Patterns
=============
Almost all time is spent below ground.
Dig tunnel systems just below surface and to 1m and deeper in soil.
Two concentric circular tunnels at different levels, with connections
between them, central nest, lateral tunnels
Use alternate strokes of forelimbs, bracing against tunnel sides with
hind limbs. At intervals scoop loose soil with forelimbs and push
along to vertical or sloping tunnel to surface.

Circadian Active day and night.
========================
Three active periods, each 3 to 4 hourrs, during 24 hours.
In breeding season males may sleep in tunnel system rather than
return to nest.
Only two active periods for males in autumn.
Males generally spend more time active than do females.
Lactating females return to nest 4 to 6 times daily.
Close synchronisation of start and cessation of activity between
neighbouring individuals.

Habitat and Range
===============
General Habitat Type

Most habitats where soil sufficiently deep for tunnelling and
adequate prey. Deciduous woodland, arable land and pasture. Uncommon
in coniferous forests, moorland, sanddunes, stony soil, sandy soil,
acid soil, permanently waterlogged soil. Up to 1000m altitude in
Wales and Scotland, 2400m in Alps

Nests / Burrows / Shelters
====================
Single nest: an enlarged section of tunnel lined with dry
leaves/grass/paper. Nest in surface mound where ground water level
high. Two or more nests may be used by breeding females.
Surface tunnels are usually short-lived and occur in newly cultivated
fields, in areas of light sandy soil and in very shallow soils, where
prey is concentrated just below the surface. More usual is a system
of permanent deep burrows which form a complex network hundreds of
metres long at varying depths in the soil. The deepest tunnels are
used most in times of drought and low temperatures. Permanent tunnels
are used repeatedly for feeding over long periods of time, sometimes
by several generations of moles. Fore limbs are used to dig,
shearing soil from the sides of the tunnel with alternate strokes.
Hind limbs are used to brace the mole's body against the tunnel
walls. The mole turns round, scoops up accumulated soil with its fore
limbs and pushes it along a previously dug side tunnel leading to the
surface. The soil is pushed out above ground to form a molehill.

Distribution and Movement (Migration etc.)
=================================
Normal Europe and Russia (Western Siberia): from Pyrenees and Great
Britain eastwards to River Ob and River Irtysh.

Found on many islands in Baltic Sea.
In Britain: mainland, Skye, Mull, Anglesea, Isle of Wight, Alderney,
Jersey.

Not found: Ireland, large portions of Iberian peninsula, southern
Apennines, south Balkans, Scandinavia (except Denmark, south Sweden
and south Finland), most North Sea islands, Mediterranean islands
(except Cres in north Adriatic).

Conservation
===========

Conservation Status
================
Wild Population -
(Importance) Common where habitat suitable (up to 16 per hectare).
Populations fairly stable

Threats Previously (start of 20th century) large-scale trapping for
pelts - still hunted for fur in some countries.
Still persecuted as agricultural pest, poisoned.

Captive Populations
================
Relatively easy to keep in captivity
Have been maintained successfully in captivity
Rarely present as wildlife casualties
Captive moles frequently die within first 24 hours
Earth deep enough for burrowing in should be provided at all times
Require water even on high-moisture diet

Special features:
=============
Despite spending so much time in soil, the mole remains fairly clean.
This is because its fur is waterproof. In addition its short fur can
lay in any direction, so the mole can move forwards or backwards in a
tunnel, without jamming its hair in the tunnel walls. A mole can do a
complete u-turn anywhere in its network of underground tunnels. If
you can imagine yourself in total darkness, in a long tunnel, the
same diameter as the width of your shoulders, having to turn around
and go back the way you came. This will give you some idea of the
physical skill involved.
==============================================

- -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: PGP 8.1 - not licensed for commercial use: www.pgp.com

mQGiBED8AzQRBAD99T8rHe7bJDsYfyHNTad1cAblxX7WSVHfe6 UBc1Ahz5lEY5Ec
wTnNrvtJDCY3bKAyhmYc8nyUjY0nSYEpSRpa5qQ/ctiU4qvfIkO7WQpVAp1SIioR
Z0WocvHfB+wYANwAhA26MTAerilpjoTJ7UQ5ttOuvl+OxueGNk IJeuj75wCg/01r
AzjGhIDH96KZueizGBXtl+0EAOMOGC1V4YnGS1UFevUjRkrKHO JJTxDZc5aghGkp
CEoLjzuI6eukOwnwNkbVJKGl6hGjdGykIAaHYuMZ0T1ell8vRc Ed9zDwJQAklNu+
JqnhR8VaOzPv/9hcsF90xrkfZPYeDUIXjWFcqxHKUZDOE8LRde5P76KfFibFmVk 7
MP3fA/9JglALbfSEsl4o/3ZOMovZsTbbqBGc0Zmnf3afNUPI49MKTT8CTSfq49Yr
EZmzSbEBJTHtlDLjdAYratPwKXGE8ajXGCKA41JDkGtR2XjKLS CQY0URI2bscpEO
6sxc6mg0kH8MLQ4uHh/KM/MPDGJV8X7RsrazGIiXoJaJha6AgrQsQ2xpbnRvbiBH
cmFpbmdlciA8Z3JhaW5nZXJAY2x1Yi1pbnRlcm5ldC5mcj6JAF 0EEBECAB0FAkD8
AzQHCwkIBwMBCgIZAQUbAwAAAAUeAQAAAAAKCRDnCKRWho/odYBCAKDD6dfH6Ttl
cPTAPnOBD2KBjvnHeQCg9WPo3PLwkUqR64ib2OURcjauVmy5BA 4EQPwDuhAQAQEA
Ms/DnohX1ViN17lDYcgwVVqiCUlhT6V9Hu5ACFbecA85EApj4luFO C/G0UY//v6H
vXU5ouWMUBh83h399Wij2HoBp/wvqrsCRgq29znNlft0kBwrkpimr7bE6ET/GBVZ
TgyNoB16ZWbxdBckdCV7ihI/BXxMJ13ytmEZ1F7IYLtEpV5BZ/3xxGO/rJ2tY9G1
4lgvEMwQx9368s6smAYPhJFq92I9oHhQLGb/PMIL/tfr++zTfVYWqRSi28BQEv/w
3XL5Qq368tpEO66WkbffFzgeQZ68zmgeWtSiSxZASvb66+BTo2 pmSbSbZ5rBARzQ
YP8DCvsMxFB7ZOmb9GnPicsBxIJal/jPQKsddEbYPidGbT/ow/n48H/2CFbHV6vD
+NDtrG6GVFcjs+RCtBSlFCGfcV0Zoi84JxiV2mWrnsZrA8LZN4 yeXGRXXXCGCZsg
FsEskajtZeRPaQlWlKe8oVmyS6V1oVESV9o1JtsCJvRqnBPFQC H4n/amBvmHG7Qw
vXcStuAyvBwHCjMqdmd0UjkJDBcQOcHDaIIaqpSDBcp2zbx6Tj 6QRnqNd9OLttZm
PzHer9w+pJPwrjh1G2mFRXLhGehlzblhYGbLW5Kyb2Rp3+uTqK 9F947ys8qN3JYr
HUYN+D0uj0wl+S3Cz/v2TkL7mXVUUhha9eUAstGBjQACAhAAh459jzkqckXBIgwM
/NTopHQliES0ylTnx/2O3zjRZ77B8CAqREgOCdP545LfXZUa8LZdTfbfHhsPutwH
JMV/xqKzny6UUuXZE7i1aUG1lpwDCuVVp/WdHiyPCWklqZZNP7UQqS6Pl540c7ga
bwZC/gHS7SjTPaeltTWtKUkJeqsn26+L+a7TMWUaTCYhrgUEcKG8lA3 IETZ/lZx7
+38erHMheTN1L1U61W+XOoAPhMJ6zTCCPRmzO1bGa+zKEVz2J8 AjQTKBru8Ltv7c
mo4C89Q8q3nG7n9Olql1QAnFoJY6BXZDE/t2f+CgdNStat8TpVkJAznlpJA4Oe5l
Za9tGZYJVMnTUrTl/j3E9TZ3HuXcBIi+Ur8aoHxXYtZ+XqdOZHjVWg5azTc8QnER
D8hla3vjX27mjW/Pu1pdYm0Ip+u8xTrp6cvDKfL4NNVQ3qhqfLVvpC3VinnkaVvk
/0UrDEeciKhJ3pv7G0mGnAQDgtMrlzTClIBYxccaOvjHGy+75TY ZsaPP0zjaPfMC
Wk+dz0UF254lPK46otfGIkNUWCdk+umJV0WuiaX/jsF9S7XMNBXfsnov+1lcb6Iv
Ehj6wpHKJVdYZDPbMdyGQxejpmONZ9XaxV3JOeG6vA4Jf5Oxaj qMcMHlx4HnGRxh
96xMEBz4rnRMyCNQ/SRb42BSFnOJAEwEGBECAAwFAkD8A7oFGwwAAAAACgkQ5wik
VoaP6HUubgCgrCgvtI639E8qCGvExzjMG6c6kL8AoKUxuGLr/3XPewGcNiP8reZv
It3C
=0SwC
- -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

-----BEGIN PGP SIGNATURE-----
Version: PGP 8.1 - not licensed for commercial use: www.pgp.com

iQA/AwUBQP0HuucIpFaGj+h1EQIiAQCgzYIY6JtkUJelpVaCc6fmIB xbRxEAoLdV
wQ7Lc94P7sN9feEygdU1+qyo
=FWWY
-----END PGP SIGNATURE-----