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Human civilization is based on the staple acorn!
Actually archaeology is not required here. Acorn has been a staple food
through much of human history (ie in historic times). That is why the name "acorn" contains the stem "corn" = "grain" as in wheat or rye. Only in the last few centuries it has been demoted to an animal food. Oaks have been significantly correlated with rising civilizations. A typical picture is to start out with a site on a river surrounded by dense oak forests. On such a site a city may arise, to become famous. Happened time after time. Countries well known for their luscious and dense oak forests include Greece and Britain, both giving rise to well-known civilations. Of course when such a City reaches its peak, the oaks will be much on the decline, getting used up as fuel. A typical example of a City-that-would-not-be if it were not for oaks and acorns is London. Look at a map of London some time, and see all the street names. Some minor points - "Acorns must be processed to remove the tannins before they are edible." Varies from species to species, some are quite edible raw. By the way wheat is usually also processed. - If you're trying to develop a stand of bearing oaks, it is going to take multiple years vs. one with a grain crop " This is the wrong way about. Oaks are there first, civilization follows where a "stand of bearing oaks" is already present. PvR Monique Reed schreef Read some archaeology. The civilizations which developed agriculture arose mostly in fertile plains, not in temperate forests. Also, acorns must be processed to remove the tannins before they are edible. Also, many oaks bear large crops only every other year. Also, if you're trying to develop a stand of bearing oaks, it is going to take multiple years vs. one with a grain crop. M. Reed |
#2
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Human civilization is based on the staple acorn!
"P van Rijckevorsel"
Actually archaeology is not required here. Acorn has been a staple food through much of human history (ie in historic times). That is why the name "acorn" contains the stem "corn" = "grain" as in wheat or rye. Only in the last few centuries it has been demoted to an animal food. [snip] Forsooth! Not in North America! Stem "corn"?! Not what my dictionary says!! OE ćern, ćcren — mast, oak mast. [Scanned — And you know what that means!!] ----------- donald j haarmann Date written forgotten! Will check da files latter. Oaks (Quercus) are widespread hardwood trees found throughout most of North America and Eurasia, as far south as the mountains of Cuba and Colombia, and at the opposite side of the world in northern Africa and Indonesia. Some 500 species have been named but only 300 are accepted. (Fowells, 1965). In the United States 58 native species of tree size, 10 of shrub size, and one naturalized specie (English Oak - Q. rober L. ) are found (Little, 1961) Perhaps the most useful part of the. oak are the seeds produced in the form of a 'dry fruit" or nut, commonly called acorns. Acorns, produced in great numbers in the fall, usually between September and November, are highly valued by both men and wildlife for their high fat and carbohydrate content. (1) Van Dersal (1940) lists 186 different species of birds and mammals for whom the acorn is a part of their diet. So great is the use of acorns by wildlife that one hundred percent of the acorn crop may be consumed by animals (Korstain, 1927; Downes, 1949). As great as the wildlife use of acorns may be, the exploita- tion of this resource by man has also been heavy, Merriam (1918) reports of a ''ceremony for the dead" held near Tualumne County, (1) See Table 1. California in October, 1907, in which ??..50 huge baskets, each holding from one to two bushels full of freshly cooked acorn mush? were prepared. "The mush was so heavy that the services of two strong women were required to lift each basket?.The total quantity of acorn mush and bread made for this ceremony must have exceeded a ton in weight." Driver (1952) notes tha+t acorns from 27 species of oak are known to have been eaten by American Indians. As we are -concerned with recreating acorn usage from the archaeological record, what are we to look for among the artifacts found that would serve as indices of acorn utilization? As the fruit of the oak stores almost all of its fat, carbohydrate, and protein in the cotyledon, which is surrounded by a tightly adhering pericarp, some device must be utilized to remove the pericarp. This was most commonly done by cracking open the acorn with the aid of a small stone used as a hammer and a flat stone used as an anvil (Driver, 1953; Gifford, 1936). As any pair of stones would do and as they also could have been utilized to remove the shell from any number of edible nuts, this avenue is closed to us. Some type of pulverizing or grinding device was employed to reduce the seed to flour (if indeed the acorns were used for this purpose, for they were also boiled to free them of their oil content and then disposed of.) (Driver, 1952). But these devices could have been used to process a wide range of vegetable products, so this avenue of investigation again leads to naught. As acorns contain varying amounts of tannic acid, which due to its astringency, makes them unpalatable to human beings, (2) unless. they are processed in some way to lessen or remove the tannins. Two common methods were employed: boiling or leaching,, neither of which required special equipment or structures. We are left with only the charred remains of the acorns themselves to reveal to the archaeologist their usage. (Sort of a tautological artifact.) As the archaeological record itself can tell us little of the use to which acorns were put and the quantity utilized, what can we say of their availability to potential use? And herein lies an endless morass of differing information, for there is no rhyme or reason to acorn production. Acorn production is commonly given as the number of acorns produced per tree, acre, 100 square feet of crown area, et al. It would seem to be a simple matter to find the number of acorns per pound and to divide this into the, number of acorns per unit to derive the weight per unit, but as the number of acorns per pound varies from time-to time, tree to tree, and from one place to another, this figure is not easily obtained. The number of acorns produced varies from year to year, species to species, tree to tree, place-to-place, etc. Goodrum (1971) reports that a southern red oak (Q. falcata) which from 196?- (2) I can find no information as to the amount of tannic acid contained 41.n various species. to 1967 produced only 3.4 pounds of acorns, but In 1960 produced 16.8 pounds. Christisen (1955) reports that a Scarlet oak (Q. coccinea) which produced no (0) acorns in 1948, produced 2,300 (11.4 lbs.) in 1949, but in 1950 it again produced no (0) acorns. The number of acorns produced is in itself not a useful measure of acorn availability because of the enormous number that are damaged by insects before falling. Christisen (1955) notes that a Post oak (Q. stellata) produced acorns that were only 5% sound. (3) Beck and Olson (1968) in their five year summary of acorn production show the following percentages of sound acorns produced between 1962 and 1966: 13, 35, 6, 12, and 57%. As it is known that animals will not eat insect damaged acorns (Van Dersal, 1940; Christisen, 1955), it is possible they were also not utilized by man. Because of the large number that are damaged, and as a few large trees can account for the majority of acorns produced, it may be that early man processed the acorns when and where they were found; thus lessening the possibility that their shells would find their way into his hearths. Parker (1910) observes that stones used for cracking nuts are to be found today near large old nut trees and the writer, in his childhood days, often hunted about for them in his grandfather's back fields and used them for purposes previously (3) Sound in that they could be expected to germinate. mentioned.'' Although the trees he refers to are walnut, it. is possible that the same was done for oak. Where large numbers of acorn remains are found in hearths, it may be that they were being roasted to remove the tannic acid. Tannic acid, when heated to 210-215oC (410-49oF), decomposes mostly into pyrogallol and carbon dioxide, and although the pyrocallol is poisonous (MLD dogs orally 25 mg. kg), it sublimes when slowly heated and is thus driven off (Merck Index). Munson (1971) notes that he is unable to account for lower than expected frequency of acorn remains from the Scovill site. The limited number of acorn remains may be due to the requirement that the acorns be processed in some way before being consumed. They may have been shelled at one particular place and the hulls discarded upon the ground or buried, never to be burned so as to be available to the archaeologist that he might recreate subsistence patterns. It is easy to envision the inhabitants sitting around the fire cracking open hickory., walnut, and butternuts and discharging the shells in the fire; thus assuring their preservation. In conclusion, all that can be said is that acorns were available in unlimited quantities, even in poor crop years, and their usage as far as the archaeological record,is concerned is a closed book. 9 TABLE I FOOD VALUES OF SOME OAK ACORN SPECIES Protein Carbohydrate Fat Source Bear (Q. ilicifolia) 5.94 54.61 19.41 1 Black (Q. velu"L-ina) 6.62 65.34 23.4 2 Blackjack (Q.marilandica) 6.28 60.11 10.66 1 Bluejack (Q. cinerea) 5.92 67.06 12.66 1 Chestnut (Q. prinus) 6.06 72.93 3.34 1 Pin (Q. palustris) 6.37 58.37 17.82 1 Red (Q. rubra) 5.33 69.1 19.3 2 Water (Q. nigra) 4.20 54.17 22.83 1 White (Q. alba) do 5.85 67.25 5.67 1 White Oak (Q. lobata) 5.7 65.0 18.6 3 Sources1) King, T. R. 1944 (2) Gysel, L. W 1957 (3) Merriam, C. 1918 NUMBER OF ACORNS PER POUN (1) (2) (3) Q. alba 150 169 103 Q. coccinea 280 202 - Q. falacata 595 - 316 Q. lyrata 130 - 111 Q. prinus 100 - 47 Q. stellata 400 441 216 Q. velutina 250 240 - Q. virginiana 390 - 281 Q. marilandica - 422 - (1) USCA, 1948 (2) Christisen, D. M., 1955 (3) Goodrum, P. H. et al., 1971 BIBLIOGRAPHY Beck, D. E. and Olson, D. F. 1968. "Seed Production in Southern Appalachian Oak Stands, '' U. S. Forest Service Research Note SE-91, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, North Carolina. Bourdeau, P. F. 1954. "Oak Seedling Ecology Determining Segre- gation of Species in Piedmont Oak-Hickory Forests " Ecological Monographs 24:297-320. ..Burnes, P. Y. 1954. ''Acorn Production in the Missouri Ozarks, Missouri Agricultural Expt. Bulletin 611. Christisen, D. M. 1955. "Yield of Seed by Oaks in the Missouri Ozarks, " Journal of Forestry 54:43 9 -441. Christisen, D. M. and Korschgen, L. J. 1955. "Acorn Yield and Wildlife Usage in Missouri, " Trans. North American Wildlife Conference 20:335-7. Downs, A. A. 1949. "Trees and Food from Acorns, " Trees: Yearbook of Agriculture, 1949, U. S. D. A., Washington, D. C. Downes, A. A. and McQuilkin, W. E. 1944."Seed Production of Southern Appalachian Oaks, " Journal of Forestry 42-:913 -920. Driver, H. E. 1952. "The Acorn in North American Indian Diet?, Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences LXII :56-62. Fowells, H. A. 1965. "Silvics of Forest Trees of the United* States, U. S. D. A. Agriculture Handbook 271. Gifford, E.W. 1936. "Californian Balanophagy,? Essays in Anthro- pology presented to A. L. Kroeber, University of California Press. Goodrum, P. D. 1959. "Acorns in the Diet of Wildlife," S. E. Association Game -and Fish Commission Proceedings. 13:54-61. Goodrum, P. D. et al. 1971. ''Acorn Yields, Characteristics, and Management Criteria of Oaks for Wildlife, " Journal of Wildlife Management 35(3):-D20-532. Greeley, ~V. B. and Ashe, W. W. 1907. "White Oaks in the Southern Appalachians, " U. S. ID. A. Forest Service Circular 105. Gysel, L. ~V. 1,)57. ''.Acorn Production on Good, Medium, and Poor Sites in Southern Michigan, '' Journal of Forestry 55:570- 574. Gysel, L. W. 1936.- "Measurements of Acorn Crops, " Forest Science 2(l):305-313. G y s e L.W. 1958. ''Prediction of Acorn Crops, " Forest Science 4:239-245 Kaulz, L.* G. and Liming, F. G. 1939. ''Notes on the 1937 and 1938 Acorn Crops in the Missouri Ozarks," Journal of Forestry 37: 904. King,, T. R. and Mc Clure, H. E. 1944. "Chemical Composition of Some American Wild Feedstuffs, " Journal of Agricultural Research 69:33-46. Liming,, F. G. and Johnston, J. P. 1944. "Reproduction in Oak- Hickory Forest Stands of the Missouri Ozarks, Journal of Forestry. 42:175-180. Little, E. L. 1961. ''Sixty Trees from Foreign Lands?Agriculture Handbook 212, U. S. D. A. , Washington, D. C. Merck Index of Ciemicals and Drugs. 1970. Seventh Edition, Merck and Company, Rahway, New Jersey. Merriam, C. H. 1918. "The Acorn: A Possibly Neglected Source of Food, National Geographic, August, 1918:129-137. Minckler, L. J. and Janes, D. 1965. "Pinoak Acorn Production on NormaI and Flooded Areas, " Mo. Agr. Exp. Stn. Res. Bulletin 898. Morris, R. T. 1927. ''Edible Acorns as Food for Man, Livestock and Fowls, Northern Nut Growers Association Report 18:35-43. Munson, P. J. eL- al. 1971. "Subsistence Ecology of Scovill, A Terminal Middle Woodland Village, " American Antiquity 36(4):410-431. Olson, D. F. , Jr. and Boyce, S. G. "Factors Affecting Acorn Pro- duction and Germination ai-td Early Growth of Seedlings and Seedling, Sprouts. '' Reference lost. Parker, A. 1910. ''Irquois Use of Maize and Other Plant Foods," New York State Museum Bulletin 144. Sharp, W. M. 1958. ''Evaluating Mast Yields in the Oaks, Pennsylvania State College Bulletin 635. Shaw, S. P. ''Wildlife and Oak Management. " Reference lost. Shelford, V. E. 10/63. The Ecology Of North America. University of Illinois Press. Trelease, W. 1924. "Thie American Oaks, ".National Academy of Science Memorandum 20. U. - S. D. A. 1948. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Miscellaneous Publication 654. U. S. D. A. Forest Service. 1969. Wildlife Habitat Improvement Handbook. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Van Dersal, W. R. 1940. "Utilization of Oaks by Birds and Mammals, " Journal of Wildlife Management 4:404-428. Williams., A. B. 1936. "Composition and Dynamics of a Beech Maple Climax Community, '' Ecological Monographs 6 :317 - 405. Yarnell, Y. -A. 1964. Aboriginal Relationships Between Culture ,and Plant Life in the Upper Great Lakes Region. Anthropology Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan #,23. Zawacki, A. A. and Hausfater, G. 1969. "Early Vegetation of the Lower Illinois Valley, " Illinois State Museum Reports of Investigations 17. -- donald j haarmann — independently dubious |
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